The Pahalgam terror attack on April 22 led to a four-day India-Pakistan conflict after India launched Operation Sindoor on May 7 and targeted and destroyed nine terror camps in Pakistan. The camps were located in Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied Jammu and Kashmir areas. ^[1] The conflict demonstrated the effectiveness of India’s offensive and defensive capabilities. India’s tactical capabilities were effective in striking the key terrorists’ sites and military infrastructure in Pakistan. India’s air defence systems (indigenous and Russian) were successful in intercepting and neutralising Pakistan’s missile and drone strikes in various regions of India’s western border.

In the aftermath of Operation Sindoor, Pakistan has been aggressively driving the narrative of victory and heroism of the armed forces. The media reports, official statements and the military briefings have carried the narrative of Pakistan’s conventional capability, which deterred India and compelled it to de-escalate. Pakistan issued a dossier praising the victory of Operation Bunyan-un-Marsoos, the name given to the operation by Pakistan. ^[2] Pakistan Army chief, General Asim Munir, has been promoted to the rank of Field Marshal. Even though Pakistan is hailing its victory primarily based on the “managed” perception of potential loss of Indian jets on May 7, the fact remains that the Chinese air defence system with Pakistan failed to intercept and counter India’s precision strikes.

China’s support to Pakistan in the crisis was not unexpected given the strong alliance the two nations share. Following the Pahalgam attack, China’s foreign minister Wang Yi said, "As an ironclad friend and an all-weather strategic cooperative partner, China fully understands Pakistan's legitimate security concerns and supports Pakistan in safeguarding its sovereignty and security interests," He advocated “for a swift and fair investigation” and said that Beijing “believes that conflict does not serve the fundamental interests of either India or Pakistan, nor does it benefit regional peace and stability." ^[3] Commenting on the Indian strikes on May 7, Lin Jian, China’s foreign ministry spokesperson, termed the Indian strikes as “regrettable”. ^[4]

China extended its support to Pakistan, while maintaining a neutral position urging both sides to de-escalate. It is speculated that China could have extended technical support to Pakistan during the crisis. Reports suggest that China assisted Pakistan in reorganising its radar and air defence systems and managing satellite coverage over India. ^[5] China's posture during the crisis can be seen as a cautious balance where it was trying to manage its eternal brotherhood with Islamabad, its significant investment and stakes within Pakistan, while at the same time judiciously expressing concerns about terrorism.

Pakistan relies heavily on China for its weapon modernisation and approximately 80 per cent of Pakistan’s equipment is from China. Beijing’s strategic interests allowed a robust export of defence equipment to Pakistan starting in the mid-1960s. For Pakistan, Chinese weapons were cheaper than Western equipment and credit from China is available on easy repayment terms. The supply of Chinese conventional weapons started in the 1960s and 1970s with F-7s and Mig-19 fighters from China. In the 1980s, Pakistan Army inventory included significant Chinese equipment, including the T-59 MBTs, T-60 and T-63 Light Tanks, and Type 531 APCs. ^[6] By the early 1980s, China had provided Pakistan with about 65% of its aircraft and 75% of its tanks. ^[7] Pakistan’s military build-up has continued primarily through Chinese defence imports and US military assistance despite phases of economic crisis in Pakistan. Over the last two and a half decades, the focus of Pakistan’s arms procurement has been modernisation of the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) and build-up of the maritime and strike capabilities of the Navy. In this regard, the technology transfer from China has been a key feature.

The Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (AMF), under the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) at Kamra, started production of the Karakoram-8 jet trainer in collaboration with the China National Aero-Technology Import and Export Corporation (CATIC). Pakistan has been very proud of the Chinese fourth-generation fighter aircraft JF-17s (earlier called the FC-1). The JF-17 is co-developed by Pakistan and China and is being built by China’s Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation (CAC) and the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC). Reports suggest PAC has been producing 58 percent of the JF-17s airframe, and China's CAC 42 percent of it. Pakistan has purchased the J-10 C, a multirole combat aircraft, from China and received the first batch of the aircraft in early 2022. The JF-17 Block III and J-10s are equipped with the Chinese PL-15 long-range air-to-air missiles. Reportedly, Pakistan has plans to acquire up to 40 units of the Chinese fifth-generation stealth fighter, the J-35A. The J-35A, developed by Shenyang Aircraft Corporation, is the second fifth-generation stealth fighter, followed by the J-20. ^[8]

Pakistan acquired and inducted multiple units of HQ-9P into the army from China in 2021. The air defence system offers long-range surface-to-air capabilities with a base range of 130 km. Pakistan acquired the HQ-9B for the PAF, which has a range of 250-300 km. The Chinese LY-80, the export variant of the HQ-16, entered Pakistani service in 2017. It is considered a cornerstone of Pakistan’s layered air defence strategy and is effective against slower targets, and has a range of 40–70 km.

Robust nuclear assistance from China is one of the most critical dimensions of the China-Pakistan alliance. China has adopted an extremely supportive posture in the development of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons and supplied it with a variety of nuclear products and services, ranging from uranium to enrichment technology, to research and power reactors. ^[9] China’s continued missile assistance to Pakistan has been the most significant factor in Pakistan’s missile build-up. In 1991, China transferred the M-11 missiles and M-9 Short-Range Ballistic Missiles (SRBMs) to Pakistan. The flow of missile technology has been consistent and Pakistan’s missile programme has come a long way. Chinese missile assistance to Pakistan ranges from providing equipment and training to transferring complete missiles. The technology of the M-11 was used by Pakistan to develop future missiles- Hatf -3 and Hatf-4. Although Hatf-5 is commonly known as a North Korean missile, reports suggest that China was under sanctions and was unable to export missiles to Pakistan, and North Korea became a transferring agent for Hatf-5, which is also known as Ghauri. The Hatf-6 is believed to be based upon the earlier Chinese two-stage solid propellant missile M-18, which was demonstrated in 1988. ^[10] In early March 2015, Pakistan test-launched a surface-to-surface ballistic missile, Shaheen-III. Reports suggest that the missile is capable of carrying a nuclear or conventional warhead to a range of 2,750 km. ^[11] Shaheen III uses Chinese 16 wheel transporter erector launcher (TEL). Reportedly, Pakistan started negotiations with the China Precision Machinery Import-Export Corporation (CPMIEC) and exported “two 16x16 WS-21200s for use as TELs for Shaheen-III missiles”. ^[12]
Pakistan’s indigenous defence production has expanded significantly in the last four decades. The small arms and light weapons industry has been developed significantly, fulfilling the requirements of not only Pakistan’s military but also of more than 30 nations, which are presently importing weapons from Pakistan. It is interesting to note that the majority of the defence production units were established to cater to servicing Chinese equipment and to assemble, co-manufacture, and produce Chinese equipment under technology transfer agreements. For example, the co-production of the JF-17 aircraft and the production of F-22 frigates for the Navy. In 2006, the Pakistan Navy ordered four F-22P-type frigates from China. It was agreed that the fourth F-22P would be manufactured in Pakistan at a Karachi shipyard to fulfil a pledge to transfer Chinese shipbuilding technology, which was part of the April 2005 agreement to build the frigates. In order to undertake the construction of the F-22, the Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KSEW) underwent massive upgradation in 2008-2009. ^[13]

Pakistan remains heavily reliant on Beijing for its defence modernisation. The momentum of the defence cooperation between the two iron brothers is likely to continue. However, the question remains whether Pakistan will draw lessons from Operation Sindoor and explore options for its defence requirements, specifically the air defence systems. The performance of the Chinese air defence systems, HQ-9 and HQ-16, was indeed a setback to Pakistan during the crisis, and reports suggest that Pakistan is aiming to acquire Türkiye’s air defence system. ^[14]

In the coming years, the following trends are likely to be seen:

1. Pakistan will continue to thrive on the narrative of military victory vis-à-vis India and claim to have revived the regional strategic balance in favour of Pakistan.
2. The strategic alliance with China remains inviolable, and China’s support for Pakistan’s military modernisation is likely to intensify.
3. Pakistan will aggressively aim to modernise its defence equipment with a focus on building the PAF and diversifying channels of acquisition. Pakistan-Türkiye defence collaboration is likely to flourish.

End Notes

^[1] Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, Media Centre, Transcript of Special Briefing on OPERATION SINDOOR (May 07, 2025), May 7, 2025,
https://www.mea.gov.in/media-briefings.htm?dtl/39474/Transcript+of+Special+Briefing+on+OPERATION+SINDOOR+May+07+2025.
^[2] “Operation Bunyan-un-Marsoos: Pakistan issues Dossier Exposing Indian Aggression”, Dunya News, May 18, 2025, https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/884733-operation-bunyanunmarsoos-pakistan-issues-dossier-exposing-indian-a. Accessed on May 8, 2025.
^[3] “Rimjhim Singh, “China Backs Pakistan, Calls for 'Swift, Fair' Probe into Pahalgam Attack”, Bussiness Standard, April 28, 2025,
“https://www.business-standard.com/external-affairs-defence-security/news/china-pakistan-security-pahalgam-terror-attack-swift-fair-probe-india-125042800234_1.html. accessed on May 20, 2025
^[4] Rishika Singh, “From US to China, how global media covered India’s Operation Sindoor against Pakistan”, The Indian Express, May 7, 2025, https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/us-china-media-reaction-op-sindoor-pakistan-9988919/. Accessed on May 10, 2025.
^[5] “Operation Sindoor: China gave Pakistan Air Defence, Satellite Support, Report Says”, Times of India, May 19, 2025, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/operation-sindoor-china-gave-pakistan-air-defence-satellite-support-report-says/articleshow/121263123.cms. Accessed on May 21, 2025.
^[6] See, Shalini Chawla, Pakistan’s Military and Its Strategy (New Delhi, Knowledge World, 2009)
^[7] Pervez Iqbal Cheema, The Armed Forces of Pakistan (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002) p164.
^[8] “Fifth-Gen Game Changer: China Accelerates J-35A Transfer to Pakistan in Dramatic Shift to Regional Power Balance” Defence Security Asia, May 15, 2025https://defencesecurityasia.com/en/fifth-gen-game-changer-china-accelerates-j-35a-transfer-to-pakistan-in-dramatic-shift-to-regional-power-balance/. Accessed on May 20, 2025
^[9] See, Dr Shalini Chawla, Nuclear Pakistan, (New Delhi, Knowledge World, 2012), p 81.
^[10] HIS Jane’s Weapons Strategic, 2016-2017, James C O’Hollaoran, p 77.
^[11] HIS Jane’s Weapons Strategic, 2016-2017, James C O’Hollaoran, p 79.
^[12] “Pakistan’s New Shaheen-III MRBM uses Chinese transporter, says Source”, http:// www.janes.com/article/61862/...iii-mrbm-uses-chinese-transporter-says-source, cited in Pakistan Defence , https://defence.pk/pdf/threads/pakistans-new-shaheen-iii-mrbm-useschinese-transporter-says-source.437117/
^[13] Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works Limited (KSEW), Globalsecuirty.org , https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/ksew.htm. Accessed on August 10, 2024.
^[14] “Pakistan turns to Turkish SEPER Air Defense Systems after Chinese HQ-16 and HQ-9 Failures”, Indian Defence Research Wing, May 24, 2025 https://idrw.org/pakistan-turns-to-turkish-seper-air-defense-systems-after-chinese-hq-16-and-hq-9-failures/. Accessed on May 28, 2025.

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